Towards a Framework for Design and Evaluation of Navigation in Electronic Spaces

  1. Preface
  1. Indroduction: A Framework for Information Space, Personal and Social Navigation
  2. On Spaces and Navigation In and Out of the Computer
  3. Beyond Navigation as Metaphor
  4. Spatial Cognition and Envrionmental Descriptions
  5. Individual Differences in Spatial Cognintion and Hypermedia Navigation
  6. Socaial Navigation
  7. Inhabiting Information Space: Work, Artefacts and New Realities
  8. Route Guidence Issues; Verbal versus Map Instructions, and Route Choices
  9. Evaluating Adaptive Navigation Suppor
  10. Voices in the Forest: Sounds, Soundscapes and Interface Design
  11. A Comparative Study of Digital and Cinematic Space with Special
  12. Supporting Navigation in Digital Environments: A Narrative Approach
  13. Navigation In Graphical User Interfaces

Preface
PERSONA is an acronym for PERsonal and SOcial NAvigation. The name of the project illustrates its two-fold approach; studying the individual cognitive, social and cultural differences in navigational ability and recognizing that computer users are social beings in interacting with other people as they make their way through information spaces. Based on this understanding we are developing new approaches to interactive system design. One of these is to identify how and where we can adapt to the individual person’s needs. The adaptations can be both dynamic, as in adaptive interfaces, or static, i.e. designing systems or interfaces for clearly defined user groups, or making it possible in for the user to adapt the system to her needs. At the same time we are developing alternative approaches to system design, breaking away from the lonely ’walker in the woods’ picture of the information system user, to a social being able to interact with other users and so get help in achieving their goals.
In this first deliverable from the project, we present a comprehensive review of literature which we see as having an impact on navigation in information space. The wide cross-disciplinary team which we have on the project has enabled us to bring together an exceptional body of work. This leads us to a broad framework for understanding navigation in information spaces. This will form the basis of an international workshop on the topic to be held in march 1998. This volume contains a number of individual and co-authored papers covering

In the Introduction the different perspectives are summarized and presented in an integrating framework for navigation, that will provide the base for further work in the project.
This document is a slightly revised version of the deliverable submitted to the European Commission in February 1998. Only typographic errors have been corrected, leading to some changes in the lay-out of the individual pages. The contents and the general lay-out of the individual chapters, including their length are, however, the same as in the original document.

Chapter 1
Introduction: A Framework for Information Space, Personal and Social Navigation
Kristina Höök, David Benyon, Nils Dahlbäck, Rod McCall, Catriona Macaulay, Alan Munro, Per Persson, Marie Sjölinder, Martin Svensson
We outline a framework for classifying information spaces that we call the "space of spaces". Based on this, we then discuss navigation, personalised as well as socially-enhanced navigational tools. Theoretical issues from a number of different scientific fields are reviewed, and issues on design for navigation are discussed from a number of different perspectives. 
Chapter 2
On Spaces and Navigation In and Out of the Computer
Nils Dahlbäck
SICS
Current work on navigation in electronic worlds is based on the assumption that geographic and electronic worlds are similar enough to make it possible to use results from work on environmental psychology and related areas in the design of electronic information spaces. The present paper is an attempt to analyze the underlying assumptions behind this approach in some detail, as well as an attempt to describe a number of different dimensions on which these spaces can differ. We also discuss how these differences might influence user behavior and design.
Chapter 3
Beyond Navigation as Metaphor
David Benyon
Napier University
The popular view of navigation is that it is a conscious, goal directed activity in which someone is trying to reach a destination. Such a view of navigation is essentially individualistic, objectivist and cognitive. Just as Lynch's aim in trying to specify the basic, discrete units of (urban) space have had a significant impact on urban planning and design, so the metaphorical use of the concept of navigation in information space may lead to effective and important design decisions. However, whether this view of navigation can act as the basis of an understanding of what people do in such spaces is another matter. The crucial thing missing form the traditional geographies and traditional views of navigation is the failure to appreciate how environments are conceived by people as opposed to simply perceived by people. An environment is not simply some physical structure to which humans must adapt. People play a role in producing the space, through their activities and practice. A semiotic analysis of space recognises that there are many different views of space and that space is a subjectively defined concept. There is a context to space which needs to be communicated, negotiated and understood between people. More than just space, there is the idea of place. People produce or construct their places at different times and there is a knock on effect from one place to another. In this chapter some implications of taking this different view of information space are explored.
Chapter 4
Spatial cognition and environmental descriptions
Marie Sjölinder
SICS
The concept of spatial cognition or spatial ability captures several quite different cognitive functions. One way of cluster spatial tests, according to certain aspects of the spatial ability, will be presented. Difficulties in measuring or capturing different aspects of the spatial ability will also be discussed. Further this review describes issues concerning the acquisition and representation of spatial knowledge. Finally there will a presentation of different environmental perspectives and spatial descriptions.
Chapter 5
Individual differences in spatial cognition and hypermedia navigation
Marie Sjölinder
SICS
One mental ability crucial for navigation, both in the real world and in a virtual environment, is spatial cognition. This review will discuss individual differences in spatial cognition and wayfinding; and how these differences could effect navigation in a virtual environment. Other human aspects, as cognitive strategies and personality factors, related to navigation and the use of computers will also be discussed.
Chapter 6
Social Navigation
Martin Svensson
SICS
A common way to navigate an information space in the real world is with help of other people, e.g. instead of looking at my map I ask another person for the direction of the place I want to go to. This communication with other agents (human or artificial) to navigate an information space is what we call social navigation.In this paper social navigation is examined; how does it work; who uses it; and most importantly, how do we navigate socially in virtual information spaces? Basically it is possible to identify two types of social navigation: direct social navigation, and indirect social navigation. 
Chapter 7
Inhabiting Information Space: Work, Artefacts and New Realities
Alan J. Munro
Napier University
This chapter looks at three areas. It begins by discussing a number ofmainly ethnographic studies of real world workplaces, and looks inparticular at the need for people inhabiting those workplaces to be awareof what others are doing in the context of their work. A rich awareness ofwhat one's workmates are doing is shown to help those in the workplace inbeing aware of the status of the work, and neccessary for being able toform collaborative enterprises with others. It goes on to look at the kindsof artefacts used in workplaces, and discusses the use of artefacts inwork. It also discusses political issues concerning artefacts, especiallyin representing information. Finally, VR systems are studied in the lightof these discussions, in particular the representational properties ofthese systems, both in terms of representing people, and representinginformational objects. It is argued finally that in conceptualising thenavigating of invormation space we need to attend to foundational issues ofthe properties of information spaces, as well as issues of how and why wenavigate within them.
Chapter 8
Route Guidance Issues; Verbal versus Map Instructions, and Route Choices
Kristina Höök
SICS
Current work on navigation in electronic worlds is based on the assumption that geographic and electronic worlds are similar enough to make it possible to use results from work on environmental psychology and related areas in the design of electronic information spaces. The present paper is an attempt to analyze the underlying assumptions behind this approach in some detail, as well as an attempt to describe a number of different dimensions on which these spaces can differ. We also discuss how these differences might influence user behavior and design.
Chapter 9
Evaluating Adaptive Navigation Support
Kristina Höök and Martin Svensson
SICS
Since navigation in information spaces is a difficult task, it is easy to envision ways of supporting users through adapting the navigation to their knowledge, task or cognitive ability. Adaptation of navigation is, however, a "two-edged" sword since it may well just contribute to the users’ workload rather than reducing it. If the space is altered, parts are hidden from the user, or links are annotated, etc. users may become confused or learn less of the structure. From the few evaluations of adaptive navigation systems that have been performed, we see an emerging pattern where depending upon the domain, only certain types of adaptive navigation works.
Furthermore, evaluations of adaptive navigation support systems fail to recognise some of the more important aspects of why certain systems provide better support than others. These studies typically measure task completion time, or how well the structure of the space is remembered. While these are among the important measurements that should be taken, other features, such as how much anxiety the system induces in users, how pleasant it is to navigate, or how much users actually learn of the information contained in the space, might be more crucial measurements.
Chapter 10
Voices in the Forest: Sounds, Soundscapes and Interface Design
Catriona Macaulay, David Benyon and Alison Crerar
Napier University
Current work on navigation in electronic worlds is based on the assumption that geographic and electronic worlds are similar enough to make it possible to use results from work on environmental psychology and related areas in the design of electronic information spaces. The present paper is an attempt to analyze the underlying assumptions behind this approach in some detail, as well as an attempt to describe a number of different dimensions on which these spaces can differ. We also discuss how these differences might influence user behavior and design.
Chapter 11
A Comparative Study of Digital and Cinematic Space with Special Focus on Navigational Issues
Per Persson
SICS
In order to better understand the characteristics of digital space, this paper investigates another artificial environment - cinema. By presenting some very common visualization techniques employed in mainstream film making, the paper first tries to compare the visualization techniques in the two media and see if the cinematic ones has any equivalents in computer interfaces. Secondly, it speculates around the possibility of implementing the cinematic techniques in interface design. In connection to this many parameters have to be considered. Digital and cinematic spaces are used for different purposes. Digital environments are much more diverse than cinematic ones (abstract-realistic). Throughout, the discussion aspires to relate to the issue of navigation and in what way cinematic visualization techniques might support the user in this respect.
Chapter 12
Supporting Navigation in Digital Environments: A Narrative Approach
Per Persson
SICS
You do not see narrative and navigation in the same sentence every day. This theoretical paper tries to work out the connections between the two concepts and how studies on narratives can assist those on navigational issues in digital environments. I will argue that some dimensions of navigation and narrative overlap and that a narrative mode of organizing digital information environments, may be helpful and supportive for users disfavored by other modes of organization, e.g. spatial and semantic. Finally I will present some concrete design suggestions.
Chapter 13
Navigation In Graphical User Interfaces
Rod McCall
Napier University
Current work on navigation in electronic worlds is based on the assumption that geographic and electronic worlds are similar enough to make it possible to use results from work on environmental psychology and related areas in the design of electronic information spaces. The present paper is an attempt to analyze the underlying assumptions behind this approach in some detail, as well as an attempt to describe a number of different dimensions on which these spaces can differ. We also discuss how these differences might influence user behavior and design.